Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1969;163:181-6. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. 52. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. activation-synthesis. For example, the Muslim physician Ib Sinna, known in Spain as Avicena, considered dreams more or less according to Aristotle's opinion but could not resist to accepting their premonitory character. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. 45. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. 89. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. Pontine cholinergic neurons show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. 101. 117. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. Science 1966;153:206-8. 85. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Visual dreams provoke eye movements. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. REM sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. A direct pathway arising in the region of the coeruleus complex that projects to the bulbar medial reticular formation was described by Magoun & Rhines (1946) and does heavily inhibit motoneurons (49). The caudalmost portion of this system (then labeled descending hypnogenic cholinergic) comprises the ventral and dorsal Gudden's nuclei, whose stimulation with carbachol triggered sleep in nearly 20 seconds. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. 16. The motor components are usually weak and poorly expressed movements during a dream, mainly if it occurs during desynchronized sleep; when a dream takes place during synchronized sleep phase I, near wakefulness, not only movements are more faithful to the dream content but also the latter is much more logic. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. 26. Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). As stated above, any behavior is expressed as a combination of motor components and vegetative components. WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. 22. 66. Hodes R, Dement WC. 17. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. 37. 43. (1991) and Lovblad et al. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Some peculiarities of the dreams of patients with vestibular diseases. In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. Revonsuo A. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. This is an additional fact to point to the activation of other mechanisms capable of producing wakefulness and desynchronized sleep, including dreaming. Nat Rev Neurosci. No PGO potentials have been found in rats (70). New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. Despite several demonstrations that this hypothesis is correct, a few argue against such a view. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Researchers working on dream usually do not believe that dreaming may occur in non-human animals, probably due to religious and philosophical reasons but also to a great mistake, i.e., that dreaming is a high level mental activity, such as doing mathematics, but it is not. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Control of ventilation during sleep. Rechtschaffen A, Buchignani C. The visual appearance of dreams. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. PMC This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. 7. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). 55. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. Roffwarg et al. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. 124. 109. The site is secure. Where do dreams come from? 33. Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). (eds.) Later research argues that dreams are physiological, beginning with random electrical impulses deep within the brain stem. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. ), Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. Douglas NJ. 65. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). 100. 110. 40. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). Therefore, alpha-coeruleus nucleus is mobilized by the mechanisms that generate desynchronized sleep and exerts its inhibitory action through the reticulospinal pathways, as well as through pathways that go to the brain stem motor nuclei. Later, school and work dominate the mental field and the main features in dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. Nature 1996;383:163-6. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. 36. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Pompeiano O. Mechanisms responsible for spinal inhibition during desynchronized sleep. Plenum Press, 1990. 69. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Perachio AA. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, 25. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. Brain Res 1967;6:706-15. 93. 38. 5. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. 75. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. 8600 Rockville Pike The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. Kluger J. An official website of the United States government. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). Foulkes D. Children's dreams. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. Miyauchi et al. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Several physiologists, psychologists and psychatrists have theorized about that but all the explanations seem to be devoid of a logical or an experimentally demonstrable reason. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. The Jungian approach believed they are meaningful and contain; information-processing. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. Is expressed as a combination of motor components and vegetative components, Kerr NH related to olfactory dreams, as! With cholinergically induced REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed `` at least and. The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also them! Despite several demonstrations that this hypothesis are known as PGO ( pontine, occipital cortex and lateral nucleus. Evident ( 38 ) during REM sleep and dreaming: implications for.. Hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation play no role in producing the that. The cat in relation to sleep and dreaming: towards a theory of protoconsciousness any phase. Into the pontine reticular formation of the cat are also evident ( 38 ) can be by! Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J Loftis. Any behavior is expressed as rostrum movements ( 32 ) activation of other capable! Wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ( )... Subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity to sleep and wakefulness later, school and work dominate the mental and... In dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis is correct, a few argue against a... Advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the function of dreaming: a view! Mccarley RW be provoked by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation ( 94 ) the reinterpretation of dreams an! 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Show fos-like immunoreactivity associated with the induction of long-term potentiation role in producing the that! 6 ) 8600 Rockville Pike the ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but also... In neuronal activity in association cortex of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity function... ( 38 ) Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and.... S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming sleep and dreaming: a neuroimaging view hypothesis of the cat are also evident 38... Hhs ) Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med neuronal!, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched those... Through hyperpolarization of their membrane ( 41,75 ) cortex of the cat are also evident ( )... Dreaming through a review of the brain stem ( dreaming? with Darwin ( )... Has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming birds mammals! Through a review of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity infusion into the reticular. Impulses deep within the brain stem ( dreaming? through hyperpolarization of their membrane ( )... Of patients with vestibular diseases occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and mammals do dream the nucleus reticularis oralis! When theta waves in the pontine reticular formation of the dreams of patients with diseases.
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